H*Tw6PH/Vw5PpWT 0 7 endstream endobj 216 0 obj <>stream Neeway, J. J. et al. gpcMf~eS0/VrasoKaW etdvZNJ6~+x5| Pq(/_>_LI7Oya?@wsZ(Y]b$%UL) Scratches Viewable as stated above, must be 1 or less. It combines several patented ISRA technologies, such as Cross Dark Field and Moir, to ensure perfect detection and classification of all typical distorting and non-distorting glass defects. In Mg- and Al-rich aluminoborosilicate glasses, Mg-smectites precipitate in unsaturated (50C, 95 %RH)75 as well as in aqueous high S/V conditions at pH>9 (50C)108, but the nature of these smectites is distinct. Langmuir 32, 60356045 (2016). This picture represents part of a long elliptical inclusion viewed under optical microscope in transmitted polarized light. 54, 117128 (2009). The initial dissolution regime corresponds to the initial glass dissolution rate (or forward rate) in very dilute conditions with respect to the glass elements. Important results can then be noticed: (i) The kinetics of glass alteration in liquid and static conditions (static referring to no circulation of liquid) generally separates into three successive regimes71. Another type of iridescence concerns atmospheric alteration23. This might indicate a higher activation barrier for the nucleation and growth of these phases in the unsaturated medium, although an effect of the high solution concentration in alkalies is also probable. Most silicate-based glasses are rich in alkali and alkaline-earth oxides, used as fluxes to lower the melting temperature and viscosity of the glass-forming mixture. We were in need of some basic training for our project engineers. has established a worldwide reputation for design and manufacture of electric glass melting systems. These products have shown mixed results, and they tend to be replaced by a more efficient and long-term preservation method through protective glazing54,55. The existence of such glasses hydrating rapidly in vapor phase (i), or of reverse order in glass durability (ii), demonstrates that the dissolution at high S/V cannot be extrapolated to the hydration of glass in unsaturated vapor conditions. (i) The presence of alkali- or alkaline earth-salts indicates that modifier ions and non-bridging oxygens have reacted with water either by ionic exchange or by water dissociation, and the released cations and hydroxyl anions have migrated to the surface, driven by the precipitation of salts. Their presence is consistent with the partial retention of alkalies in the hydrated layer. Sci. The reality is that flaws come with the territory, and its impossible to get flawless glass. J. Nucl. This is an example of an heterogeneous knot with stress viewed under optical microscope in transmitted polarized light. Crizzling displays a characteristic pattern of cracks intersecting at right angles, as it is expected for the release of tensile stresses in a mechanically fragile layer76,77. A full-blown, well visible, iridescence is the sign of a more advanced atmospheric alteration and it is not clear if it occurs in unsaturated conditions only (RH<100%) or in conditions with discontinuous liquid water supply. Chopinet, M. H. et al. ASTM has many different specifications and classifications depending on the type of glass being analyzed or quality controlled. O.M. Because of the elevated pH and rapid saturation of the solution, all rate-influencing processes, such as the development of an alteration layer having passivation properties (if any), or the precipitation of secondary phases (if any), are accelerated. & Caurant, D.) 97105 (Hermann, 2019). One final note on dealing with glass defects: choosing the right fabricator is critical. Ninety percent of ASTM conversations never have to happen. Float Glass is glass that is manufactured on a float line where a molten ribbon of glass is made by "floating" the liquid glass mixture over a bed of molten tin. Bunker, B. C., Arnold, G. W., Day, D. E. & Bray, P. J. The authors are very grateful to all the institutions, laboratories and companies for their financial support that allowed the organization of the conference and publication of their acts: the French Ministry of Culture, the C2RMF, the Foundation of the Cultural Heritage Science (FSP), the company Reckitt Benckiser, the Center for Atomic Energy and Alternative Energies (CEA Marcoule), Paris Science et Lettres University (PSL University), the Institute of Research of Chimie Paris (IRCP), the Research Laboratory of Historical Monuments (LRMH-CRC, USR 3224) and the French National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS). Chopinet, M. H. & Lehud, P. Les problmes daltration rencontrs sur des verres industriels. & Li, W. Influence of manufacturing parameters on the crackling process of ancient Chinese glazed ceramics. Glass panels can be manufactured between 2 and 25mm thick , with 4mm as standard . The atmospheric glass alteration depends strongly on the glass surface composition, which may be different from the bulk composition, due to process parameters62. Special SSLR technology provides 100% on-line, real-time haze measurement. qNHb"9I/ dYC[[aRU*xt}le X.| endstream endobj 217 0 obj <>/ExtGState<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageC]/XObject<>>>/StructParents 0/Subtype/Form>>stream Contractors and their window and glass suppliers need to work together. Must regrind or scrap. structure and properties of historic glass. A scanner developed by the Glass Inspector technical team, capable of detecting the 4 main defects that tempered glass can have: White haze. This field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged. in Glass Atmospheric AlterationCultural Heritage, Industrial and Nuclear Glasses (eds Biron, I., Alloteau, F., Lehud, P., Majrus, O. Solids 355, 14791488 (2009). The defect is present in aform of a blister filled with condensed Sulphates. Michelin, A. et al. In the following sections, we try to point out these differences to capture the specificities of glass atmospheric alteration and draw possible lines of further research. A distinction could be made between stable and unstable glass objects in museum collections based on the sodium, potassium, acetate, and formate concentrations47. Other surface characteristics (composition and stress) determine the chemical water-surface reactivity and influence the first alteration stage. On the other hand, it may be severely dominating with dramatic consequences, as in the case of the mixed-alkali lime glass of CH aged at 80C and 85% RH, where a thick hydrated, depolymerized layer with same composition as the pristine glass, except the additional water, was the only alteration phase to be observed79. in Modern Methods fo Analysing Archeological and Historical Glass (ed. 84, Copyright (2018), with permission from ELSEVIER. Influence of composition of nuclear waste glasses on vapor phase hydration. (Elservier, 2003). Reflection operation is almost impossible, on-line, with conventional camera/AOI/vision technology. Pack a picnic, take the Owner on a hike in the hills and look for some butterflies. eh SEM images (back-scattered electrons) of the edge of a resin-coated and polished sample of the glass fragment. No more than 2 are allowed per lite and must be separated by a minimum of 24 inches. Verit, M., Falcone, R., Sommariva, G., Chopinet, M. H. & Lehud, P. Weathering of the inner surface of soda-lime-silica glass containers exposed to the atmosphere. +U4VbM0EQ-F~py\^ 4d[^=6&i,(C#? That's the short version. J. Non-Cryst. They belong to the stage 4, where loss of matter starts by the fall of surface flakes. Seeds: small bubble that forms inside the glass substrate, Rubs: abrasions on the surface caused by a foreign object or another pane of glass, Inclusions: small particles or stones that have been linked to spontaneous breakage this important issue is discussed in detail in our course, Coating voids and pinholes: gaps in the coating material that exposes the substrate, Breakouts: waves along the edge of the glass caused by the cutting process, Miss spots: an indent in an otherwise flat polished edge, Bad aris: the aris sizes on both sides dont match, Heat-treating defects: there are many kinds, including bows/warping, ripples, overcooking, and heat stains, Chips: usually caused by a tool or other piece of glass, often along an edge, Shells: caused by a direct impact with a hard object, Scratches: the most common defect and hardest to avoid classified as heavy/deep or light scratches. Float glass is known to have micro-inhomogeneities due to its amorphous molecular structure (Benedetti et al., 1994). Sci. PhD thesis (University of Edinburgh, 2006). a, b Degraded glass ewer, inv. Bioanal. An experimental study of the effect of zinc treatment on float glass. Oakley, V. Vessel glass deterioration at the Victoria and Albert museum: surveying the collection. For the SON68 glass, at temperatures below 125C, no Si-bearing phase appears in unsaturated conditions, while zeolites do form at 90C in aqueous solution at high S/V and alkaline pH (pH ~11.5 with NaOH or KOH in solution)103,104. Vol. Note that in a few special situations, some specific issues may arise: During storage or transport of glass where confinement and non-ventilated atmospheres increase the likelihood of corrosion. This is probably because in vapor conditions, the attacking water does not correspond to an aqueous saturated solution, and because the nature of the gel/hydrated layer and secondary phases are distinct as will be discussed below. Nucl. Takes too long cannot keep up with process. As its "floats" over the tin and on to a conveyor system of air or . Model and Monte-Carlo simulations. These figures, which are based on visual observations, could be largely underestimated as signs of deterioration are not always visible. However, in the unstable mixed-alkali lime composition of the CH mentioned above, the hydration rate (at 85% RH) increased with time over the 6-day experimental period at 80C and over the 9-month experimental period at 40C, while the temperature had an accelerating effect beyond that predicted by the Arrhenius law (considering a high activation energy of 85kJ/mol). & Caurant, D.) 196206 (Hermann, 2019). Glass Sci. organized the design and co-writing of the paper, wrote the sections Mechanisms of glass alteration in humid atmosphere and Summary and contributed to the other sections. Proc. Although the studies are scarce, it is possible to compare the alteration rates in atmosphere and in immersion for a few glass compositions. Conserv. ASTM International is the basis for understanding glass and coating quality, allowable defects, and visual inspection criteria. Toughened glass is thermally treated glass. 23431 (H. 19cm). Special scanner technologies for Glass Cleanliness, Coating Defects, Scribe metrology. Bates, J. K. et al. Apart from solutions oriented on consolidation (such as Paraloid B-72 acrylics)33, the few invasive conservation treatments aimed at slowing down atmospheric alteration almost exclusively consist of coating the glass surface with either inorganic34,35 or hybrid organicinorganic products. The approximated subimages in . 3)84. and JavaScript. Nucl. 380, 821 (2008). 46, 271276 (2005). J. There are many different specifications and classifications for various types (flat, heat-treated, insulated, laminated, etc.) Wall, Ryosuke Kikuchi, Tsutomu Sato, Carlo A. Arcilla, Victor Piovesan, Isabelle Bardez-Giboire, Stphane Gin, John D. Vienna, James J. Neeway, Sebastien N. Kerisit, Thomas L. Got, Sambuddha Misra, Ian Farnan, Adam J. Mallette, Joelle T. Reiser, Jeffrey D. Rimer, npj Materials Degradation However, despite the diversity of glass compositions and experimental conditions (set-up, T, %RH and duration, characterization techniques) found in the literature regarding the atmospheric alteration and summarized in Tables 2, 3, experimental results gathered so far indicate that glass is differently attacked in vapor conditions and in immersion conditions, so that the atmospheric alteration phenomenology (rate, chemical nature of the alteration layer and products) cannot be accounted for by an extreme S/V ratio. Alloteau, F. et al. J. Non-Cryst. Consequently, the hydrated layer was probably denser and more passivating against water penetration, in relation to the better chemical durability of this glass. This is because I am more specialised in this aspect. (wt%): Glass A, 71.3 SiO2, 0.8 Al2O3, 0.8 MgO, 5.0 CaO, 11.0 Na2O, 11.0 K2O; Glass P, 75.8 SiO2, 0.3 Al2O3, 0.2 MgO, 2.0 CaO, 1.5 Na2O, 20.2 K2O; Glass SL, 66.8 SiO2, 2.5 Al2O3, 3.0 MgO, 7.5 CaO, 18.0 Na2O, 2.1 K2O. The affordable GS defect analysis with their high quality and quick response is vital to keep a high yield in our high quality production. Manual inspection is inconsistent and expensive. Stained glass windows raise serious preservation issues due to their fragility and direct exposure to adverse weather and outdoor air pollution48. Bates, J. K., Seitz, M. G. & Steindler, M. J. Solid State Laser Reflection (SSLR) technology automatically adjusts for glass curvature. Am. Solids 358, 28942905 (2012). Part I of IV. No way to measure cleanliness. Glass container defects guide provides high-level details of nearly all possible defects of a glass container, including image and standard name of the defect (often including the most frequently used local terms). But it isnt perfect. & Kanzaki, M. Proton distributions and hydrogen bonding in crystalline and glassy hydrous silicates and related inorganic materials: Insights from high-resolution solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Non Cryst. Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter what matters in science, free to your inbox daily. Therefore, for the SON68 glass, it is concluded that the vapor hydration rate is controlled by a reactive diffusion process of H2O, the activation energy of which being close to that determined in Si saturated solution, although the diffusion coefficient is higher by two orders of magnitude102. 2. Lahlil, S., Xu, J. All burners produce highly luminous flame with under-port and side-port installation and they are suitable for oil, gas and dual fuel creating low NOx through excellent heat transfer resulting in faster batch melting. If the client or Owner knows the short version of the inspection, discussed in the early stages, youll just have to get your entertainment elsewhere.. The monitoring of humidity at a low level in the display cases or storage spaces is fundamental to slow down the evolution of the degradation phenomenon. Very good results have been obtained on pristine glasses, but research must continue on pre-altered glasses42. J. Phys. Stage 3, for which the cracks, initiated during the stage 2, are uniformly visible across the surface is qualified as excipient crizzling. An international initiative on long-term behavior of high-level nuclear waste glass. C 112, 15941603 (2008). Scale bars are b and c 1000m, e and g 10m, f and h 1m. IT ENHANCES AND IS PART OF THE VISUAL EXPERIENCE.IF YOU WALK UP CLOSE TO THAT BUTTERFLY, STICK YOUR FACE RIGHT INTO HIS FACE, THE PERCEPTION MAY CHANGE.UP CLOSE IS DIFFERENT THAN FROM FURTHER AWAY SAME GOES FOR GLASS.. Chemical corrosion of highly radioactive borosilicate nuclear waste glass under simulated repository conditionso Title. Bouakkaz, R., Abdelouas, A. Res. Corros. Special scanner detects washer debris which is invisible to the eye, but which will cause coating defects. No more than 3 are allowed per lite and must be separated by a minimum of 24 inches. Loisel, C. & Pallot-Frossard, I. Stained-glass: how to take care of a fragile heritage? Analyzing all the glass in museums is not possible and visually identifying chemically unstable glass objects is difficult before changes in appearance occur. The primary goal is to either preserve glass objects from further alteration (CH glasses) or prevent alteration altogether (glass industry) or to predict the long term behavior of a glass matrix exposed to the vapor phase (nuclear waste glasses). . Solid State Laser Reflection (SSLR) technology is self-aligning; no alignment required after installation. Iliffe, C. J. Devreux, F., Ledieu, A., Barboux, P. & Minet, Y. Leaching of borosilicate glasses. I still learned new ways to optimize take offs and types of software to help. Since the time of their production, they have existed in atmospheric conditions. Solids 84, 251257 (1986). Patent FR 2269500A1. Nihil unde, blanditiis. In the latter case, it appears as though hydration could be occurring independently from the depletion of mobile cations. 31, 362368 (2001). No more than 2 total viewable defects as described above are allowed per lite. b, d, f the black and pink lines are the 29Si MAS NMR spectra of the pristine and altered glass respectively. in Conservation, Restauration du Verre. Anisotropy. Sci. Solids 479, 1628 (2018). The best solution is to manage customer expectations upfront, to make sure everyone is on the same page. Long-term observation (8 years) of glass enamels in outdoor exposure and 2 years of weathering and cleaning of float glass. A 53, 225227 (2012). Microcracks penetrate in the hydrated layer, intersect, and many of them pass into the pristine glass, often redirecting parallel to the surface. Hahn, K. Protection of glassware in the automatic dishwashing processa detergent manufacturers insight and experiences. Rei, S., Grieseler, R., Krischok, S. & Rdlein, E. The influence of Sahara sand on the degradation behavior of float glass surfaces. 5, 6453864549 (2015). Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. This unsaturated period may last a very long time (several tens of thousands of years) and significantly contribute to the glass ageing6. Based on analysis of the float process. Although wildly entertaining, it can be a tricky plot to follow. An online defects inspection method for float glass based on machine vision is presented in this paper, and a distributed online defect inspection system for float glass fabrication is. Notably, the minimum thickness at which it cracks may probably vary. Contract Inspection allows your team to deploy Dark Fields inspection expertise even in the early days of product and process development. is a world leader of electric boosting design and supply. Cobo del Arco, B. In a similar way than in aqueous alteration studies, the stability and evolution of the hydrated layer should be studied as a function of environmental parameters, keeping in mind the specific chemistry of unsaturated conditions. Mater. Moreover, the temperature dependency of the rate follows an Arrhenius law (Fig. 3), encompassing alteration steps in liquid conditions or at 100 RH%. Regarding liquid conditions, general trends are well known. J. Appl. 75, 2033 (2002). Stella, A. Download the complete list of courses and their equivalent credit hours. Nat. 5 Research Drive, Shelton, CT 06484 All Rights Reserved. RSC Adv. J. (ii) In some cases, glasses that classify as the most durable in aqueous phase become the least durable in vapor phase: such an order reversal occurs in a series of Mg-rich75, and another series of Fe-rich73, sodium aluminoborosilicate glasses. De Ferri, L., Lottici, P. P., Lorenzi, A., Montenero, A. STG realizes solutions for energy savings, NOx reduction, increased melting rates, and optimized process control in particular, for industrial furnaces, mainly in the glass industry. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles Your future self will thank you! Verit, M. Venetian soda glass. I use Learnglazing.com to teach all of our new estimators. The D2O apparent diffusion coefficient deduced by fitting the TOF-SIMS profile was 2.31019m2s1, in good agreement with the H2O diffusion coefficient evaluated in (b) of 5.31019m2s1. J. ASTM Glass Standards and the Luxury Building Industry, A Guide to Living Patina Finishes for Architectural Bronze Windows, Planning a Successful Delivery Oversized Custom Windows, ASTM C 1036-16 (Standard specification for flat glass), ASTM C 1048-92 (Standard specification for heat-treated glass kind HS, kind FT coated and uncoated glass), ASTM C 1376-97 (standard specification for Pyrolytic and vacuum deposition coatings on glass). View in daylight but not direct sunlight. Bates, J. K. et al. The glass industry is concerned with the short-term alteration of the glass surface by unsaturated humidity and they are in need of a better understanding of the compositional and environmental dependency of the phenomena12. Inspect the central 80% portion of the glass. They may allow capillary condensation of water at the interface with the pristine glass during humid periods, extending glass hydration. After all, glass is meant to be looked through, not at. For instance, the CH community describes a stage 1 with the formation of salts on the glass surface. J. Nucl. Learnglazing.com is an excellent tool to learn or sharpen your knowledge in the glazing industry. Ribet, S. & Gin, S. Role of neoformed phases on the mechanisms controlling the resumption of SON68 glass alteration in alkaline media. Glass washer performance varies with time. For preventive conservation in museums, it is important to know the composition of glass objects and their state of degradation. The glass inspection product portfolio is constantly enhanced with innovative solutions offering 100% defect detection for a wide range of applications, from float glass and automotive glass inspection to solar glass, pattern glass, thin glass and process glass inspection. Under these conditions, if you cant see it from 10 feet it isnt a defect. In this respect, it is important to emphasize that these alkali salts do not generally hold all the alkalies of the alteration layer. Angeli, F., Gaillard, M., Jollivet, P. & Charpentier, T. Influence of glass composition and alteration solution on leached silicate glass structure: a solid-state NMR investigation. And in the second part, well briefly discuss how to manage customer expectations. Fournier, M., Gin, S. & Frugier, P. Resumption of nuclear glass alteration: state of the art. (UK) Limited leads the industry in solving difficult electric melting problems. volume4, Articlenumber:27 (2020) Characterisation of complex alteration layers in medieval glasses. The project manager could have reached out to the glass fabricator to negotiate for a replacement, but usually this is only done if a flaw is in fact a defect. Complete turnkey system Stand alone: Stand-alone system off-line and development, including roll unwind, rewind, sheet handling. The glass compositions showing detectable signs of atmospheric glass degradation are classified as unstable and the other as stable in the CH field. J. Corros. The chemical processes induced by unsaturated humidity nonetheless bear specific features, as it will be demonstrated in this paper. Rework is possible polish out scratches. 122, 1225 (2017). The set up and style of the training is easily self guided, and very informative. 1,4 and 5 are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Solids 52, 91103 (1982). Contrary to sulfates, this salt is basic and deliquescent and thus promotes the network hydrolysis and the leaching of alkalies23,48. Very few experimental studies have attempted to determine the alteration rates in atmospheric conditions. Heat-treating defects: there are many kinds, including bows/warping, ripples, overcooking, and heat stains. Many rejectable defects are not detected; bad plates get packed. Sci.Sect. It enhances and is part of the visual experience. Raman, C. V. & Rajagopalan, V. S. Colours of stratified media-Iancient decomposed glass. 43C, 111113 (2002). Glass is like a butterfly. Research prospects are suggested in the last part. All Rights Reserved. s r.o. This method inspects defects through detecting the change of image gray levels caused by the difference in optic character between glass and defects. Expectations are high for everything, and glass isnt perfect. & Lefvre, R. Weathering of float glass exposed outdoors in an urban area. Technol. Keep writing informative articles hope to see more soon. Melcher, M. & Schreiner, M. Evaluation procedure for leaching studies on naturally weathered potash-lime-silica glasses with medieval composition by scanning electron microscopy. A hundred people participated to the symposium with the presentation of 27 conferences and 11 posters. In the nuclear glass field, altered samples are systematically observed with a SEM (or any instrument with greater spatial resolution), and the presence of a hydrated layer is always reported. Integrated with SSLR defect detection and edge grind system. If you can no longer see the flaw, it isnt considered a defect. There are three broad categories of glass defects and flaws. Youll learn a lot more about the ASTM standards in our course lesson, Common Glass Defects. 4 and NMR spectra in Fig. Melcher, M. & Schreiner, M. Leaching studies on naturally weathered potash-limesilica glasses. Their training modules do a much better job explaining glazing systems than I ever could! We describe these three components in the following. Whenever a pane of glass is handled, theres a chance it can be damaged. LearnGlazing.com is approved by the NACC and AGMT for the purpose of continuing education within their certification programs. Most crizzled glasses show significantly lower rates of progressing deterioration when they are stored with a RH below about 50%. in Techn hors-srie (ed. J. Non-Cryst. the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in I have been in the Glass business for 20 years. The communication of the needs of each group as well as their complementary expertize are essential for progress and to provide answers to the different challenges in the best way in the years to come. Customers only need to provide mounting holes or anchor bolts and power. Its easy to understand and avoids getting into the weeds that are the official ASTM glass standards for acceptable glass defects. If defects are visible beyond what is allowable as listed by sizes (square feet) below using the inspection criteria, the glass may be rejected. Soc. Stud. Systems include XYZ stages and requisite safety interlocks and controls. Glass Sci. However, achieving these ad-vances is an increasing challenge for float SEM images (secondary electrons except d back-scattered electrons) of the surface (a, c, e) and of the edge (b, d, f) of glass plates altered at 40C, 85% RH for 6 months. 379, 628639 (2004). SiOH contributions with very high chemical shift (about 14ppm) exist in the A and P altered powders and are assigned to silanols groups H-bonded to non-bridging oxygens, as in crystalline alkali silicate hydrates. In the glass industry, studies of the chemical attack by atmospheric agents were conducted as early as the 1950s7. The refractories used in glass furnaces are in contact with the glass, the superstructure, the crown and the. float glass facility lifetimes exceeding 15 years are achieved and the largest furnaces have a capacity of 1000 t/d. Beyond general trends such as the content in alkalies and stabilizer oxides, the chemical stability in atmosphere could not be correlated to any precise parameter of the chemical composition but is rather thought of as a property of the overall glass composition1. Survey of the national museums of Scotland glass collection. Corrosion in humidity. Correspondence to Conventional on-line measurements are also imprecise. The system is composed of eight cameras and LED illuminators to cover the whole glass surface. Majrus, O., Lehud, P., Biron, I. et al. The magnitude of these stresses and the mechanical properties of the layer depend on the glass composition and on the details of the RH variation history (cycling and ramp rates), so that the characteristics of the layer breakdown are probably diverse. It is heated to more than 650*C and cooled very quickly multiple times. 5, 11301146 (1990). Today 16, 243248 (2013). To avoid repetitions and lighten the text, the terms unsaturated atmosphere, humid atmosphere, unsaturated humidity, and atmospheric conditions are also used. Humidity conditions can be unsaturated (less than 100% RH) or saturated (100% RH), although we focus on the unsaturated conditions in this paper. On-line defect detection to 1m. Must reject sheets with chamfer defects to prevent adding value and scrapping later. Glass industry standards were primarily talking about visible defects here are set by the ASTM (American Society for Testing & Materials). Solids 108, 269288 (1989). However, the only alteration product that is always present is an amorphous hydrated layer, with variable thickness (iii). Achieve greater throughput, improved quality, minimize scrap, eliminate manual labor, and improve costs concurrently. One study deals with the hydration kinetics of a sodamagnesialime silicate glass under unsaturated conditions using ion beam analysis techniques.

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