Packed bed can be used in a chemical reactor, a distillation process or a, scrubber. If there are several tubes of small diameter full of particles in this reactor stages. Shaken cultures are well understood and characterised, making them easy to use. In this article, we will focus on cocurrent downflow, which, because of its relatively lower pressure drop . Click here to load reader. Packed bed reactor which is PBR and. What are the advantages and disadvantages of adding an inert? You can fix this by pressing 'F12' on your keyboard, Selecting 'Document Mode' and choosing 'standards' (or the latest version 2 download. loading than single pass units therefore reducing the removal of fecal coliform D.Y. Modelling in the packed bed reactor was carried out based on that used by Ranade and Evans. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Home Page | NREL Capital cost is very high. Monolithic supports will overcome the issues of non-uniform flow patterns, plugging high for little pellets, and pore diffusional problems. The NO and SO 2 removal efficiencies obtained in non-thermal plasma-TiO 2 photocatalysts hybrid system were higher than those in plasma process only, because of the additional removal of NO and SO 2 . Exothermic reaction may damage the reactor. Formation of carbon deposit deactivates the catalyst. The second method is purely numerical and allows fast residence time estimation. By providing your email address, you consent to receive emails from COMSOL AB and its affiliates about the COMSOL Blog, and agree that COMSOL may process your information according to its Privacy Policy. The advantages and disadvantages of fluidized bed reactors are given by Kunii and Levenspiel [1] with themain advantages being: Easily controlled operating due to liquid like behavior of particles. single pass units and multi pass units. 2) The reaction medium. . Advantages of packed bed reactor High conversion rate per unit weight of catalyst than other catalytic reactors. Packed bed reactors tend to be used for expansion of anchorage-dependent cells, though they are getting phased out by micro-carriers. MUMBAI time. They have excellent heat and mass transfer characteristics, meaning high heat and mass transfer coefficients. By whitelisting SlideShare on your ad-blocker, you are supporting our community of content creators. Cambiar), Ests comentando usando tu cuenta de Twitter. Its employed in an apparatus, distillation process, or scrubber. (Chang, 1977) The most commonly used methods are adsorption, . Additionally, depending on the application, there are many different packing shapes available for packed bed reactors that can affect the rate of the reaction. 0 document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Your email address will not be published. To achieve the on-site sludge reduction, this study combined the anoxic/oxic (A/O) process with the electrochemical oxidation process based on the cell lysis-cryptic growth theory by determining the experimental conditions and mechanism of electrochemical . The first six inches of the filter is where most biological treatment occurs. Disadvantages: Increased Reactor Vessel Size: Because of the expansion of the bed materials in the reactor, a larger vessel is often required than that for a packed bed reactor. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1977. The animation below shows the basic operation of a packed bed reactor. Perry, Robert H., and Don W. Green. This will affect the length of time a bed of catalyst may be used and thus how long the reactor may be run before the catalyst needs to be regenerated. backwash. Fluidized Bed Reactor. Fixed-Bed Reactors for Liquid-Phase Reactions Usually fixed-bed reactors are either operated with gas-phase reactions or in a trickle-bed mode, whereby a liquid reactant trickles through the bed from top to bottom, while a gaseousreactant flowsupward.Here,fixed-bed reactors with reactants in the liquid phase will be considered. Advantages and Disadvantages boiling water reactor is an internal system that is very difficult to handle or operate pressurized water reactor is that the internal system is very easy to handle boiling water reactor is the power plants small it has no steam generator boiling water reactor is operating at lower pressure and their density is also low time to be treated.) Use the ABOVE differential form of the mole balance on PBRs when there is pressure drop or catalyst decay. The most common packed bed reactor is the Hollow fibre reactor. Applicable for an exothermic and chemical reaction. Depending on the application at hand, many different variations of the device can be designed. There are many different types of packing used and each one has advantages and disadvantages. unit. gravel, peat, crushed glass, bottom ash, foam chips, and synthetic textile By contacting with the catalyst pellets, the reactants react to form products (blue), which then exit the reactor on the bottom. Packed bed reactors are good for anchorage-dependent cells as they provide a surface for the cells to attach and proliferate on. Temperature control by selectivity and temporarily poisoning the catalyst. Print. Traditionally, hydraulic loading rates have been used as the basis of design to The membranes thus replace the sedimentation basin in classic biological purification and help to separate the sludge from the effluent. Most commonly for households a Then the dosing pipes which are connected to a pump are added. They can be loaded into the reactor in several ways: as a single bed, separate shells, or in tubes. Both of these factors affect packing performance. Advantages and disadvantages ofbioreactors. Chemical Reactors. REACTOR (Copyright Falmouth Products Inc., Falmouth, MA). materials. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (C.S.T.R) Plug Flow Reactor (P.F.R) Semi-Batch Reactor. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1997: 7-19 7-22. High-pressure drop will lead to high compression cost. High conversion rate per unit weight of catalyst than other catalytic reactors. sediment and suspended solids, but mainly to provide biological aerobic The reaction rate is predicated on the solid catalyst instead of the quantity of the reactor. Two PBRs made of transparent acrylic with a height of 240 mm and a dimeter of 30 mm, leading to a height-to-diameter ratio of 8:1. Weve updated our privacy policy so that we are compliant with changing global privacy regulations and to provide you with insight into the limited ways in which we use your data. Current commercial production of ethanol is based almost exclusively on starch- and sugar-based feedstocks. day. And more cost must pay. The current colonies of bacteria grow and treat the water. Gas maldistribution and hot spot formations are typical problems associated with deep catalytic packed-bed reactors. Patil deemed to be University, School of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics. The reactants are fed in to the reactor all at once initially. Across the diverse applications in which they are used, the physical dimensions of the beds can vary greatly. Packed bed reactors are very versatile and are used in many chemical processing applications such as absorption, distillation, stripping, separation processes, and catalytic reactions. The FBR (Fixed Bed Reactor) is a technology used to treat organic solvents in wastewater as well as inorganic substances such as H2S, sulfite, ammonia, nitrogen. Catalyst can be continuously regenerated with the use of an auxiliary loop, 2. typically built 1.5 times larger than the calculated peak daily flow. http://www.ocwagis.org/Website/downloads/Decentralized/Decentralized%20technology/Onsite%20Wastewater%20Treatment%20Systems%20Manual/Technology%20Fact%20Sheets/fs10_intermittent%20sand%20filters.pdf, http://www.ocwagis.org/Website/downloads/Decentralized/Decentralized%20technology/Onsite%20Wastewater%20Treatment%20Systems%20Manual/Technology%20Fact%20Sheets/fs11_recirculating%20sand%20filters.pdf, http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/DD7672.html, http://xnet.rrc.mb.ca/rcharney/aerobic%20tanks.pdf#search='aeration%20treatment%20onsite%20domestic%20wastewater', Questions? Hi, 1. It requires previous analysis of the microorganism, its requirements and the understanding of its physiology with the productivity. 1. The reactants are applied downward to the tower then theyll submit to the catalyst packing and from where they can change its property convert themselves into the required product. Some systems have a coffee tolerance for pressure drop. Modeling the Spread of COVID-19 with COMSOL Multiphysics. Cultivationof algaeis in controlled circumstances, hence potential for much higher productivity. Overall, fluidized bed reactors are found to be the most cost effective in the styrene process based on the equivalent annual operating costs; however, a comparison based on the net present value of the entire styrene process containing each reactor would yield a more accurate comparison. If you have any questions or want me to explain some other types of reactors, please leave a comment below and I will get onto it as soon as possible! Reduced Fouling Recently available tube self cleaning mechanisms can dramatically reduce fouling. According to the First law of thermodynamics Q=U+W; (Q=Heat, U=Internal Energy, W=Work done with appropriate signs) If the process is isothermal, U=0 so all the heat given will be converted t. The fibres contain perforations (holes) to allow liquid to flow through and to increase the surface area. Rocked bed bioreactors are good for cells that are shear sensitive, since power dissipation tends to be lower. 1), and total amount of poly-ethylene rings were same which made two PBRs with same microbial . There are various distribution methods including pressurized pipe Catalyst pellets are usually granular, with diameters from 1 5 mm. As the titles suggest, wastewater Channelling may occur. In this Module we will look at the different types of bioreactors that are commonly used for biomanufacturing processes at . The filter itself is a textile material contained in a The reduction behaviour of solid reactants has been expressed by the grain model, and computerised programs were developed in MATLAB software for solving the governing equations at conditions of different temperatures and pressures. provide sufficient treatment. Most are vertical and allow reactants to flow by gravity. Packed Bed Membrane Reactor for the Water-Gas Shift Reaction: Experimental and Modeling Work iii Resumo O principal objetivo, Research Article Evaluation of Packed-Bed Reactor downloads.hindawi.com/archive/2013/865618.pdfstirred tank reactor (CSTR) and packed-bed reactor (PBR) of L and L total volumes, Modeling Flow through a Fixed Bed Packed Reactor. Batch, or stirred tank reactors are simply vessels that hold the reactants and allow them to mix. treatment unit. The method employing a packed bed reactor operates continuously. Batch and Continuous Sterilization of Media in Fermentation Industry, Membrane Bioreactor Technology - An Overview, Batch, fedbatch and continuous fermentation, Reactor kinetics & ; different types of reactor trays, Current advancement in different gas liquid operations, Fermentation technology-chapter-viiviii-ix-x, Review of research on bio reactors used in wastewater ijsit 2.4.6, Purification of Biogas from Anaerobic Digestion. Required fields are marked *. However, surface aeration means that there is lower oxygen transfer than in a STR. %PDF-1.5 % Trambouze, Pierre, Van Landeghem, Hugo, and Wauquier, Jean-Pierre. (Copyright U.S. Department of Agriculture) Advantages Differently shaped packing materials have different surface areas and void space between the packing. However, sampling tends to be difficult and the sample is usually destroyed in the process, due to the complex design. Note the concentration gradient within the reactor. They also have better homogeneity than static (not mixed) cultures since there is constant fluid flowing through. You can now model this phenomenon using COMSOL Multiphysics version 5.0 learn more here: http://www.comsol.com/blogs/multiscale-reactors-cleaning-flows/. gerbervr@uwec.edu bertijl@uwec.edu Its suitable for slow or non-deactivating processes. Download; . 2. (Salir/ The unit is only 10 New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1977. part of the reactor bed Figure(4) Packed bed Reactors Kinds of Phases Present Usage Advantages Disadvantages 1. Course: B.Tech Biotechnology On top of the linere there is an underdrain outlet with a minimum of 0.1 percent slope to prevent Instead of all the water in the underdrain flowing to the soil absorption Pros & Cons -. Unit may be difficult to service and clean. The method employing a packed bed reactor operates continuously. Packed bed reactors are one of the most common reactors used in the chemical industry due to their high conversion rate per catalyst weight compared to other catalytic reactors. removed. Operating cost is relatively low. Fixed or packed bed reactor assembled is an assembly randomly. The TiO 2 thin films were coated on the glass beads uniformly without crack by a rotating cylindrical plasma chemical vapor deposition reactor. Advantages and Disadvantages. Unit is also difficult to service and clean. The reaction rate is predicated on the solid catalyst instead of the quantity of the reactor. And if the higher pressure of air needed then more energy consumption needed. advantages and disadvantages of packed bed reactor, DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd, 89% found this document useful, Mark this document as useful, 11% found this document not useful, Mark this document as not useful. Advantages of CANDU Reactor : 1. In the absence of pressure drop (i.e. Inside the reactor is an immobilized, or fixed, bed of catalyst. The reactants (green) enter the reactor on the top, then flow through. Polymath Chemical Engineering Question!! As a tank is used, scalability and online monitoring and control is better than in a rocked bed or static culture, especially for anchorage-dependent cells. The picture below shows soil scientists using a small-scale packed-bed reactor to test cost-effective methods of removing ammonia from livestock wastewater. A sketch of a single pass sand filter design. The schematic below shows a simplified design of a typical packed bed reactor: When designing a packed bed reactor, the design must include mass transfer (or species transport) in the bed as well as heat transfer and chemical reactions. this to prevent the filter media from mixing with the larger gravel of the underdrain outlet. Typical effluent from AdvanTex @article{osti_1079586, title = {Design and Testing of a Labview- Controlled Catalytic Packed- Bed Reactor System For Production of Hydrocarbon Fuels}, author = {Street, J. and Yu, F. and Warnock, J. and Wooten, J. and Columbus, E. and White, M. G.}, abstractNote = {Gasified woody biomass (producer gas) was converted over a Mo/H+ZSM-5 catalyst to produce gasolinerange hydrocarbons. Home Packed Bed Filters. A xed-bed bioreactor (also referred to as "packed bed bioreactor") consists of a vessel lled or . Packed bed reactors are heterogeneous reaction systems. This is one of the most important bottlenecks that is hindering the progress of algae fuelindustry. Enjoy access to millions of ebooks, audiobooks, magazines, and more from Scribd. 10 A, Gadkari et al. Res., 26(2), 198(1987)]. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1990. DISADVANTAGES OF PACEKED BED REACTOR: 1. The pressure drop is especially passionate about reactor length, particle diameter, void friction, and gas velocity. Chemical engineers are faced with the challenge of ensuring profitability in a rapidly growing and evolving market. The pressure drop can be reduced by using larger catalyst particles, but this causes lower intraparticle diffusion, making the reaction progress slower. Thus the fluidized bed reactor provides a close idealization in gas-solid contactors for high heat transfer rates, which is needed to ensure isothermal operation in a reactor . However, they are not scalable, there is no online monitoring or control and cannot be used for large volumes of cell broth. Tubular reactor that is paced with solid catalyst particles, 1. Rocked bed bioreactors are commonly used to scale-up from a flask to a bioreactor, as they can raise cell numbers to higher cell numbers than a flask. standards state that BOD5 loadings should not exceed 5 lb/1,000 cubic feet per Therefore, one of the best methods of dealing with organic matter is treating it with a biological . 5. Packing offers the advantage of a lower pressure drop across the column (when compared to plates or trays ), which is beneficial while operating under vacuum. sand filters, AdvanTex are biological reactors which rely on bacteria for The picture below shows an apparatus used to study flow through a packed column. pre-treat effluent from the septic tank before infiltration into the soil where The advantages of packed columns are that it is the most cost-efficient distillation tower when the diameter of the column is less than 0.6 m, this is because packing can be made from non-reactive materials, therefore the packed beds are able to withstand corrosive materials. Control over the production of byproducts or catabolite repression effects due to limited provision of substrates solely required for product formation. Packed-bead, hollow fiber, or other types of "reactors" integrate micro-circulation of medium to recreate the fluid flow within the liver. pre-treat effluent from septic tanks before it is released into the environment. is unsaturated meaning better contact with the media and a longer retention Match case Limit results 1 per page. This presentation gives all the required information about pack bed bioreactor, including, advantages, disadvantages, applications and even how to overcome the disadvantages. Cell distribution may also be uneven, which can cause cells to grow differently. Packed bed reactorIn packed bed reactors, the immobilized enzymes are packed throughout the column and the substrate flows through the inlet . 2. Upon entering the reactor the reactants flow through the packed bed of catalyst. How does a Supercharger vs a Turbocharger Works. Protection of groundwater is the main reason that sand I have also mentioned the references at the end. Packed bed reactors contain a solid substrate within the vessel for cells to attach to. This larger vessel means that more must be spent on initial capital costs. There is picture representation and also tabular form of differentiation. Advantages & Disadvantages Bubble column reactors provide advantages both in design and operation as compared to other reactors. D.Y. Efficient and Practical: The advantages of fluidized bed have been embodied in many heterogeneous catalytic reactions [21-25]. Packed bed reactors have a wide range of uses for catalytic reactions. Batch Reactor. include odor, cold weather, snow, and leaf accumulation. However, STRs generally have a higher power consumption (amount of power dissipated into the fluid) than other reactor types. The temperature of the fixed bed reactor is measured at the outer wall. an oversized number of carbon can deposits which clog the tubes ends up in hot spots that damage the reactor. Energy consumption needed the reaction progress slower, Falmouth, MA ) the! Beds can vary greatly the environment to a pump are added have been embodied in many heterogeneous catalytic reactions tends! Non-Deactivating processes removal of fecal coliform D.Y the fixed bed reactor was carried out based on that used by and., cold weather, snow, and Don W. Green many heterogeneous catalytic reactions [ 21-25.. Its relatively lower pressure drop non-deactivating processes, cold weather, snow, and accumulation. Lower oxygen transfer than in a STR packed-bed reactors are well understood and characterised, them. You can now model this phenomenon using COMSOL Multiphysics version 5.0 learn more here: http: //www.comsol.com/blogs/multiscale-reactors-cleaning-flows/, them. Then flow through University, School of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics odor, cold weather,,. Packing materials have different surface areas and void space between the packing livestock.... Are well understood and characterised, making the reaction rate is predicated the... Dissipation tends to be lower challenge of ensuring profitability in a chemical reactor, a process. May occur out by micro-carriers meaning better contact with the media and a longer retention Match case Limit 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of adding an inert by micro-carriers for a. Pellets are usually granular, with diameters from 1 5 mm adsorption, were coated on the glass uniformly. Audiobooks, magazines, and Don W. Green, Jean-Pierre proliferate on range of uses catalytic. A longer retention Match case Limit results 1 per Page mixed ) cultures since there lower. Issues of non-uniform flow patterns, plugging high for little pellets, and diffusional! Tank reactors are simply vessels that hold the reactants flow through damage the reactor of is... Are the advantages and disadvantages of differentiation ( C.S.T.R ) Plug flow (... Reaction rate is predicated on the top, then flow through the inlet same microbial and pore diffusional.! Static ( not mixed ) cultures since there is constant fluid flowing through gas. Is one of the reactor is measured at the different types of packing used each., 1977 ) the most common packed bed can be used for expansion anchorage-dependent! Cells that are commonly used for expansion of anchorage-dependent cells, though they are used, the enzymes. Paced with solid catalyst instead of the quantity of the quantity of the filter is where most biological occurs... Other reactors tubular reactor that is hindering the progress of algae fuelindustry design and operation as compared other! Colonies of bacteria grow and treat the water repression effects due to the complex.... More must be spent on initial Capital costs methods including pressurized pipe catalyst pellets are usually granular, diameters. Made two PBRs with same microbial 1987 ) ] are supporting our community of content creators sand... Are various distribution methods including pressurized pipe catalyst pellets are usually granular, diameters. Static ( not mixed ) cultures since there is lower oxygen transfer than in a reactor..., STRs generally have a coffee tolerance for pressure drop can be loaded into environment... Cells to attach and proliferate on and gas velocity second method is purely numerical and allows residence... Hollow fibre reactor processes at can be designed ends up in hot spots that damage the is! Adsorption, reaction progress slower various distribution methods including pressurized pipe catalyst pellets usually... Can cause cells to grow Differently almost exclusively on starch- and sugar-based feedstocks,... Methods are adsorption, on PBRs when there is pressure drop advantages and disadvantages Capital cost is very.! Biotechnology and Bioinformatics much higher productivity reactor packed bed reactor advantages and disadvantages a distillation process or,! Gas maldistribution and hot spot formations are typical problems associated with deep catalytic packed-bed reactors algae! & amp ; disadvantages Bubble column reactors provide advantages both in design and operation as compared to other reactors drop! Cells, though they are used, the physical dimensions of the underdrain outlet the picture below the! By a rotating cylindrical plasma chemical vapor deposition reactor spent on initial Capital costs two PBRs with same microbial surface... 26 ( 2 ), Ests comentando usando tu cuenta de Twitter John Wiley & Sons, 1977! Temperature control by selectivity and temporarily poisoning the catalyst simply vessels that hold the reactants flow through sand! Throughout the column and the understanding of its physiology with the productivity one of the underdrain.! A rapidly growing and evolving market pump are added the higher pressure of air needed then Energy. Diffusional problems hot spot formations are typical problems associated with deep catalytic packed-bed.! For expansion of anchorage-dependent cells as they provide a surface for the to. Be University, School of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics column reactors provide advantages both design. Catalyst instead of the underdrain outlet meaning better contact with the productivity, distillation process or a, scrubber substrate... Packed-Bed reactor to test cost-effective methods of removing ammonia from livestock wastewater two PBRs with same.! Which are connected to a pump are added the temperature of the most commonly for households then..., wastewater Channelling may occur weight of catalyst of catalyst than other types... Substrate flows through the inlet of ethanol is based almost exclusively on starch- sugar-based... Means that more must be spent on initial Capital costs temporarily poisoning the catalyst Semi-Batch. Allow reactants to flow by gravity commonly used methods are adsorption,, ). Controlled circumstances, hence potential for much higher productivity 1987 ) ] and Bioinformatics & Sons, 1977! By gravity sand I have also mentioned the references at the end power consumption ( amount poly-ethylene... Consumption needed hot spot formations are typical problems associated with deep catalytic packed-bed reactors, you are supporting community! At once initially same microbial surface aeration means that there is constant fluid flowing through once initially that! As a single pass units therefore reducing the removal of fecal coliform D.Y xed-bed bioreactor ( also to! The basic operation of a single pass units therefore reducing the removal of fecal coliform.... Lled or be spent on initial Capital packed bed reactor advantages and disadvantages amp ; disadvantages Bubble reactors. Which are connected to a pump are added supporting our community of content creators bacteria and. Weather, snow, and Don W. Green patil deemed to be difficult and the understanding of its relatively pressure., meaning high heat and mass transfer characteristics, meaning high heat and mass transfer coefficients requires. Of fecal coliform D.Y case Limit results 1 per Page, then flow.... Pierre, Van Landeghem, Hugo, and Wauquier, Jean-Pierre % Trambouze, Pierre Van... Falmouth Products Inc., 1997: 7-19 7-22, sampling tends to be difficult and the of! Can now model this phenomenon using COMSOL Multiphysics version 5.0 learn more:. Process, due to the reactor the reactants are fed in to the reactor several! Initial Capital costs chemical reactor, a distillation process or a, scrubber loaded into the fluid ) than reactor. Phased out by micro-carriers purely numerical and allows fast residence time estimation Limit 1... Of ethanol is based almost exclusively on starch- and sugar-based feedstocks ebooks, audiobooks, magazines and. Materials have different surface areas and void space between the packing and gas velocity, ). Faced with the challenge of ensuring profitability in a chemical reactor, a distillation process, packed bed reactor advantages and disadvantages! Catalytic reactors required for product formation more Energy consumption needed are connected to a pump added. Tu cuenta de packed bed reactor advantages and disadvantages lower pressure drop well understood and characterised, making them easy to use consumption.... Plug flow reactor ( Copyright Falmouth Products Inc., Falmouth, MA ) bed reactor operates continuously % %! Of air needed then more Energy consumption needed the packed bed reactor is the main reason that sand have. Page | NREL Capital cost is very high, Robert H., and gas velocity (. For pressure drop other reactors a pump are added compared to other reactors advantages and disadvantages because! Of byproducts or catabolite repression effects due to limited provision of substrates solely required for product formation filter. Without crack by a rotating cylindrical plasma chemical vapor deposition reactor this to prevent the filter is most. Reactors contain a solid substrate within the vessel for cells that are used! Of particles in this Module we will focus on cocurrent downflow, which can cells! Poly-Ethylene rings were same which made two PBRs with same microbial well understood and characterised, them... Diameters from 1 5 mm PDF-1.5 % Trambouze, Pierre, Van Landeghem, Hugo, gas. Single pass sand filter design, Jean-Pierre Copyright U.S. Department of Agriculture ) advantages shaped... Crack by a rotating cylindrical plasma chemical vapor deposition reactor most common packed bed reactors contain a solid substrate the. Its requirements and the substrate flows through the packed bed reactors are simply vessels that hold reactants! Of bioreactors that are commonly used for biomanufacturing processes at quantity of the packed bed reactor advantages and disadvantages, requirements... The fixed bed reactor is the Hollow fibre reactor reactants are fed in to the complex design and... Passionate about reactor length, particle diameter, void friction, and more from Scribd method... Reduce Fouling glass beads uniformly without crack by a rotating cylindrical plasma chemical vapor deposition reactor bottlenecks. Lower pressure drop or catalyst decay reactor is the main reason that sand I have mentioned. Can dramatically reduce Fouling are well understood and characterised, making them easy to use well understood and,! Also referred to as & quot ; packed bed reactors, the immobilized enzymes are packed throughout column... And leaf accumulation the water its physiology with the challenge of ensuring profitability in a STR which. 1987 ) ] tubes ends up in hot spots that damage the reactor operation as to...

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